THE USE OF MICRO SKILL COMPONENTS IN LISTENING TO ENGLISH NATIVE SPEAKERS

 

Asep Dudi Kurnia (asdud@gmail.com)

Rina Herlina (rherlina85@yahoo.co.id)

Purwati (purwati_1@yahoo.com)

 

ABSTRACT

L2 listeners usually find more difficulties in listening to English native speakers than to non-English native speakers and it causes misunderstanding in listening to speech through false identification of words, which is the same source of confusion in comprehending English spoken by English native speaker. This paper will particularly emphasize the role of micro skill components consisting of linking and weak sounds as a phonological processing in listening to English native speaker. According to McDonough and Shaw (2003), micro skill components are different components of sound processing mechanisms. They also added that micro skill components are the analysis of language sound consisting of linking and weak sounds. This paper will also elaborate that the mastery of micro skill components is important to construct L2 listeners’ listening skill in order to avoid misunderstanding in listening comprehension.

Keyword: Micro skill components, Linking sounds, Weak sounds.

 

INTRODUCTION

One of the basic language skills is listening comprehension that is included into receptive skill. As stated by Rost (2002), listening is getting something or catching what the speaker says. So, listening comprehension to English means getting something or catching what the English native speaker says. The first goal in listening is comprehension. That is also, what the listeners want to achieve. Gou and Wills (2005) argue that according to second language acquisition theory, an input skill is very much essential for students’ language development, particularly in understanding the linguistic information they hear (see Krashen, 1985)

 

Krashen (1982) as cited in Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) insisted that ‘comprehension is necessary in order for input to become ‘intake’-language data that is assimilated and used to promote further development’. It can be language acquisition such as new vocabulary, grammatical construction, and pronunciation mechanism processing. Listening comprehension is widely applied to all listening aspects such as interpreting activity, communication with native speakers either formal or non-formal. In particular, Ur (1998) indicates that listening involves hearing the sounds, recognizing words, understanding varieties of accents, understanding intonation, coping with noise (external interference and indistinct pronunciation), recognizing sentences, predicting the meaning and understanding whole course.

 

In Richard’s view (2008), ‘to understand the nature of listening processes, we need to consider some of the characteristics of spoken discourse and the special problems they pose for listeners’. He also underlined that spoken discourse usually happens immediately and causes the listener to try hard to process it ‘online’. To put it another way, listening to spoken English provokes some difficulties because L2 listeners, in this case Indonesian learners especially the beginners, have limited knowledge of English word recognition and English sound processing mechanism. In listening classes, teachers usually ask the students to do listening practices, but they are not really taught how to comprehend English spoken by native speakers. In other words, they are not taught the key of listening comprehension, because practice are enought.

 

This paper highlighted linking and weak sound, because L2 listeners have more restricted experiences in identifying both than others. L2 learners introduced to micro skill components before listening comprehension exercises begin. As we know, English native speakers never get rid of linking and weak sounds, either in formal or non-formal talk. That sounds unfamiliar to L2 learners because they just understand English spoken mostly by non-English native speakers, such as English teachers at schools. Another reason is lack of practices concerning the theories of micro skill components in listening comprehension. Frequently, L2 listeners listen to English native speakers in teaching learning activities, but the teachers seldom explain the theories of micro skill components to the students. So, their listening proficiency is what they have mapped in their brains from non-English native speakers. In fact, word recognition takes important roles in understanding spoken English from English speakers, but without micro skill components mastery, misunderstanding comes up. L2 learners with good knowledge of word recognition, in this case vocabulary mastery, but lack of theories of micro skill components, they will surely have the accent shock when firstly contact with English native speakers, because their English knowledge is obtained mostly from reading and listening spoken by non native English speakers which is absolutely different from what they listen from native speakers. At last, accent fatigue will drive them give up, because they understand nothing. Accent fatigue is the point that L2 learners get upset and tired of listening. That is why L2 learners always blame the speed of native speakers’ speech, whereas it is the normal speed for native speakers. Linking and weak sounds are always beyond the focus in listening class compared to other points. Hence, this paper will elaborate more about linking and weak sounds, and it does not mean that other aspects of micro skill components.

 

Micro Skill Components

Micro skill components in listening comprehension to English native speaker takes important roles to achieve better comprehension of the English native speaker’s speech. It is better to be introduced firstly before giving listening practices. As cited in Omaggio (1986), Richards (1983) divided micro skill components as follows:

–          Retain chunks of language in short-term memory

–          Discriminate among the distinctive sound in the new language

–          Recognize stress and rhythm patterns, tone patterns, intonation contours.

–          Recognize reduced forms of words

–          Distinguish word boundaries

–          Recognize typical word-order patterns

–          Recognize vocabulary

–          Detect key words, such as those indentifying topics and ideas

–          Guess meaning from context

–          Recognize grammatical word classes

–          Recognize basic syntactic patterns

–          Recognize cohesive devices

–          Detect sentence constituents, such as subject, verb, object, preposition, and the like.

 

We can divide Richards’ classification into three categories. They are grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation aspects. All points are coherent. In fact, all are taught separately in all school levels started from elementary school to the university such as grammar, vocabulary, and basic pronunciation. They are constructed in school curriculum implicitly and explicitly. Only linking and weak sounds, which are parts of pronunciation, are always beyond teaching treatment. Whereas, weak and linking sounds have significant prominence, because those are the most difficult aspect for L2 learners especially Indonesian learners to make meaning figured out. As we know that native speaker use linking and weak sounds in every single talk, they make. It is their habit and style. We, however, cannot find it in written language because it always presents the formal form of a language with good grammar. Based on our experiences in a three-year teaching experience, students show significant progress as we gave them the theory of linking and weak sounds before going into practices. Great surprise appeared in their faces when they knew how words they used to pronounce actually have different ways to pronounce.

 

Linking sounds

Linking sound occurs when the last consonant of a word is assimilated with the vowel of the beginning of the following word. Linking sound, however, can occur when the last vowel of a word is assimilated with the vowel of the following word. Notice the following examples:

 

Get   out   of    here

 

 

You     and      I               

 

 

Here       we     are

They      are     in         an interview

No     idea

Wait     a      minute

 

Linking sounds in English are hard to figure out for L2 learners because in Indonesian language linking sounds are not applied. If we do not see the sentence context we will be get stuck with ambiguity.

 

It         is          over                             sound like it’s sofa

 

This     art        is          easy                 sound like this artist easy

 

I        mean        it’s       great              sound like Amin is great

 

Weak sound

All words that are unstressed or becoming weak to be pronounced are called weak sounds. They consist of function and grammar words, prepositions, conjunctions, and articles and so on. Therefore, it is hard as well for L2 learners to work with it because of the absence of weak sounds in Indonesian language. The vowel and consonant sounds are prominent and difficult to catch. The use of weak sounds is more complicated than linking sounds. They sound very lightly or even they are not heard at all. Notice the following example:

 

I want to be with u                                           I wanna be with you

She has got to talk to him                                she’s gotta talk t(o) (h)im

We couldn’t listen to him                                 we ku(d)n lis(t)n t(o) (h)im

We couldn’t listen to him                                 we ku(d)n lis(t) t(o) (h)im

 

I have some invitations                                    I hv s(ə)m invətation

That mountain is so blue from a distance        That mount(ə)n is so blue frəm a distance

 

Construction and connective speech are parts of weak sound, because they do not have stress, such as, couldn’t, wouldn’t, haven’t, do you (dju), would you (wouldju), etc. They sound unclear and the only way to be able to catch their meanings is looking at the next and analyzing them.

Some misunderstanding in comprehending English from native speakers will disturb the communication especially those who work with native speakers. The impact will definitely deals with the feeling of insecurity, the decrease of work quality because of some misunderstandings coming up during the work. Linking and weak sounds usually turn out during the normal speed of daily talk and either formal or informal speech. Native speaker, however, will adjust it for the sake of L2 learners’ comprehension. It depends on the level of study. Beginners will get the speed adjustment, but for intermediate and advance, the adjustment will gradually normal. The advantages of micro skill components taught in listening comprehension are:

 

 

 

For learners

1. Quickly understand spoken English from native speaker
2. Motivate learners to learn more about English
3. Build leaners’ self confidence
4. Get accustomed to linking and weak sound
5. Influence learners’ speaking skill in English with native like accent

Below are the strategies we can do to get better comprehension in listening:

1. Take one audio script of a native speaker talk
2. Listen how words are pronounced
3. Put some marks of linking and weak sounds in each sentences of the script
4. Practice it from a song is not a good idea since it does not have normal speed. It means the rhythm follow the music beat.
5. For the better result, it would be better for you to apply them in your conversation practice
6. Do it repetatedly until you get accustomed to it

 

CONCLUSION

Listening comprehension to English spoken by native speakers for L2 learners especially Indonesian learners is hard. It needs a prior treatment, which clarifies and elaborates the clues of native speakers’ style and accent in speaking. They use linking and weak sounds most in their talk and speech. Linking and weak sounds, which are parts of micro skill components of listening comprehension, can be given as a prior treatment in listening comprehension. Not all aspects are implemented in micro skill components should be given because others like grammar and vocabulary aspects must have been taught in different subjects. Linking and weak sounds are unfamiliar for those who never practices listening to English from native speakers. So, if micro skill components are applied as a prior treatment, it will definitely contribute to construct L2 learners’ skill in comprehending English from native speakers.

 

REFFERENCES

Jack C.R. (2008). Teaching listening and speaking: From theory to practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Krashen, S. (1985). The  input hypothesis: Issue and Implications. Harlow: Longman

Larsen-Freeman and Long. (1991). an introduction to second language acquisitiion research. New York: Longman.

McDonough, J.&Shaw, C. (2003). Materials and methods in ELT: A teacher’s guide. USA: Wiley-Blackwell.

Guo, N.&Wills, R. (2005). An investigation of factors influencing English listening comprehension and possible measures for improvment. A paper presented at AARE Conference. Retrived from: www.aare.edu.au/05pap/guo05088.pdf (March 28, 2011).

Omaggio, A.C. 1986. Teaching language in context: Proficiency-oriented instruction. Boston: Heinle and Heinle.

Rost, M. (2002).  Teaching and researching listening. England: Pearson Education.

Ur, P. (1998). Teaching listening comprehension. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

 

 

This article is taken from a published book entitles “Proceeding: International Conference on Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Page: 199-2003

 

Copyright © by the Muhammadiyah University of Purwokerto 2011

Allrights reserved

 

ISBN                           : 978 602 98472 0 8

Editor                          : Prof. Bambang Yudi Cahyono, M.A., Ph.D

Selection Team            : Dr. Furqonul Azies, M. Pd.

Language Editor         : Khristianto & Bustanudin As-Suaidy

First Impression          : May, 2011

 

Published by

Fakultas Sastra

Universitas Muhammadiyah Purwokerto

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Telp. 0281-636751 E-Mail: cotefl3.@yahoo.com

 

orman�$ye� �� ight:115%’>Harmer, Jeremy. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Person Educated. Limited. 2001

 

 

CURRICULUM VITAE

            Purwati, S.S., M.Hum Works as a lecturer of English Educational Program, Faculty of Teacher Trainning, Galuh University.

 

This article is taken from a published book entitles “WAHANA PENDIDIKAN (Majalah Ilmiah Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan Universitas Galuh. Page: 81-85

 

Copyright © by Universitas Galuh Ciamis 1995

Allrights reserved

 

ISSN                           : 1410-606X

First Impression          : October 1995

 

Published by

 

Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan Universitas Galuh

Jl. R.E. Martadinata No. 150 Ciamis 46211 Telp. (0265) 7721972 Fax. 771955

 

 

 

THE TRANSLATOR STEPS IN TRANSLATING LETERARY TEXT

Proceeding: Internatioal Seminar On Translation

Orientation & Goal of Translation Study and the problems Within

 

 

Purwati

English Department, Galuh Universitity, Ciamis

 

Abstract

 

This paper presents the steps a translator should to in translating literary text. Those steps are: understanding the author, studying the background of the literary texts, and embodying the style of the original.

Keyword: author, background, style.

 

1. I.              Introduction

The translator who makes no attempt to understand the how behind the translation process is like the driver of a car who has no idea what makes car moves.  Likewise, the mechanic who spends a lifetime taking engines apart but never goes out for a drive is a fitting image for the dry academician who examines the how at the expense of what is. (Bassnet, 2002: 82)

Anne Cluysenaar, in her book of literary stylistics, makes some important points about translation. The translator, she believes, should not work with general precepts when determining what to preserve or pararrel from the SL text, but should work with an eye on each individual structure, wheter it be prose or verse, since each structure will lay stress on certain linguistics features or levels and not others. (Basnet; 2002:83)

Cluysenaar’s assertive statements about literary translation derive plainly from a structualist approach to literary text that conceive of a text as a set of related systems, operating within a set of other systems. Robert Scholes says that every literary unit from the individual sentence to the whole order of words can be seen in relation to the concept of system. In particular, we can look at individual works, literary genres, and the whole of literature as related systems, and at literature as a system within larger system of human culture. (Bassnett, 2002: 83)

The failure of many translators to understand that a literary text is made up of a complex set of system existing in a dialectical relationship with other sets outside its boundaries has often led them to focus on particular aspects of a text the expense of others. (Basnett, 2002: 83)

The translator then first read/translates in the Source Language and then, through a further process of decoding, translates the text into the Target Language. In this, he is actually doing more for the Source Language text is being approached through more than more than one set of systems. It is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not interpret, as if the two were separate exercise. (Bassnett, 2002: 86)

The translation of literature is to express artistic conception of the original in another language, which can make readers learn something from the version just like reading the original. Consquetenly, translation should be faithful representation in one language of what is written or said and the style of the original in another language.

That is to say, the translator can not add anything that the author did not write, or the translator can not do at his will. In addition, the translator should represent the author’s style. To make it clear, the American author Mark Twain can better serve as a good example. He was famous for humor. So when a translator does translation about his works, humor must be shown in his version. Otherwise, readers will not be interested in the version.

Based on the previous theoretical framework, this paper intends to outline what a translator should do in translating literary work. This will be elaborated into three major parts namely understanding the author, studying the background of the literary texts, and embodying the style of the original. Those will be presented in the folllowing part of this paper.

 

 

 

1. II.                The Steps a Translator Should Do in Translating Literary Texts
   1. Understanding the Author

Translation is a process of the re-creation of the literature. However, in the process of translation, the translator is not able to separate with the author. Translation, especially the translation of literature, is not an easy job. It is essential for the translator to master two languages well, at the capability of expressing words, discernment and ability of thinking in terms of images, which all of them the translator must possess.

 As a result, when he reads the work of the author, he can completely understand the author’s meaning, and then grasp the motifs of the original. In other words, the process of translation is a process of understanding the author. In order to get a good version, a version that can draw reader’s attention, the translation must go into the authors’s heart, grasp the essence of the work.

Maybe sometimes, will ask that without understanding the original, could a translator do translation? Certainly, he could. But please remember that translation does not only serve for the translator itself but also the readers as well. If the translator’s version is not able to reflect the original truly, will readers appreciate and admire him? After all, a good translator comes from the evaluation of public. To some extent, his success relays on the readers.

 

1. Studying the background of the literary works

After understanding the author, it is necessary for the translator to study the background of the works. As far as we know, all the things appear accompanying with some reasons, so do authors. When an author writes a work, sometimes he wants to expose something to the readers, or according to the social problems, he will create a work to warn the public. To wit, the literature always reflects the mental attitudes of a time and a nation.

Eventually, if the translator is lack of this step, different kinds of false translation will be caused. Absolutely, as a translator, he should be knowledgeable, such as, the knowledge of religion, history, geography and other aspects.

It is undutiful that without studying the background of the work, any false translation will happen. Therefore, the translators have to look for reverent reference. By understanding the authors’ notes, works and backgrounds, it will be helpful for the translators to translate.

 

1. Embodying the style of the original

The translation of literary works is for the purpose of not only expressing the content of the original, but also expressing the style of the original. It can be said that the problem of the style is still the key problem of the translation. Generally speaking, style is divided into three types: the style of thought, art and language. However, literature is an art described in language and words, so the former two styles are expressed throughout the language. That is to say, the problem of style is concentrated on the style of the language.

Style is the reflection of the author’s personality, and it is the unity of context and form of the work. It there is no certain form of expression, the readers can not be attracted by the content of the work. With this view, every work has its own special artistic charm. Under this circumstance, the translator should study the author’s style suitable literature language.

The closer the style of the version is to the original, the more opportunities to “arouse sympathy” and the more easily to succeed. Therefore, if the original is simple and exquisite, the version should not be flowery and ornate. It is necessary to make the readers understand.

Up to this part, this paper has examined the steps that the translators have to consider in translating literary texts. The next is the conclusion, which will end the discussion of the proposed topic.

 

 

III. Conclusion

            Translation study is still a young discipline and still has a long way to go. With the advancement of the society, the fields of translation have gradually appeared. Different people have different opinions towards the translation, especially the translation of literary texts.

            This paper has proposed the steps that a translator can consider in translation literary texts. They are: understanding the author, studying the background of literary texts, and embodying the style of the original. By considering these steps it is hoped that the result of the translated literary texts can be better.

 

Refferences:

Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies. 3rd Ed. Routledge. 2002

Linder, Daniel. Translating Irony in Popular Fiction. Babel 47:2 p.97-108

Martin de Leon, Celia. Skopos and Beyond: A Critical Study of Functionalism. John Publishing Comp. 2008

Zatlin, Phyllis. Theatrical Translation and Film Adaption. Mulitilingual Matters Ltd. 2005

……………………….. Necessary Qualities of Translation in Literary Works (Retrived from 210.40.132.153:8080/uploadfile/20041126917754.pdf)

 

 

1. III.             Conclusion

Translation study is still a young discipline and still has a long way to go. With the advancement of the society, the fields of translation have gradually appeared. Different people have different opinions towards the translation, especially the translation of literary texts.

This paper has proposed the steps that a translator can consider in translating literary texts. They are understanding the author, studying the background of the literary texts, and embodying the style of the original. By considering these steps it is hoped that the result of the translated literary texts can be better.

 

Refferences:

Bassnet, Susan. Translation studies. Ed. Routledge. 2002

Linder, Daniel. Translating Irony in Popular Fiction. Babel 47:2 p. 97-108

Martin de Lenon. Celia. Skopos and Beyonce. A Critical Study of Functionalism. John Publishing Comp. 2008

Zatlin, Phyllis. Theatrical Translation and Film Adaption. Multilangual Matters Ltd. 2005

………………….. Necessary Qualities of Translation in Literary Works (retrieved from 210.  40.132.153:8080/uploadfile/2004112617754.pdf).

 

 

This article is taken from a published book entitles “Proceeding: International Seminar on Translation. Page: 197-200.

 

Copyright © by the Yogyakarta State University 2010

Allrights reserved

                                            

ISBN: 978-979-97919-5-5

 

Editor                          : Asruddin B. Tou, Ph.D

Selection Team            : Khristianto & M. Kharis.

 

Language Editor         : Dr. J Bismoko

First impression           : December 2010

 

Published by:

Bina Citra Pustaka Publishing

Jl. Raya Baturetno 02/VII No. 6 Wonogiri, Central Java

Telp. (0273) 461704

 

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THE IMPLEMENTATION OF SCHOOL BASED CURRICULUM An Analysis of the Curriculum of SMAN 1 Baregbeg Ciamis

Purwati

(0908511)

Abstract

This paper is written as response of the failure in the implementation of school based curriculum assigned by Permendiknas number 22, 23, 24 year 2006. Based on the theories proposed in Jack C. Richard’s book in developing curriculum, this issue is investigated throughout this paper comprising four main parts: the introduction, the theoretical framework, the analysis and the last is the conclusion. A curriculum of a state school is taken as the object of the analysis. From the anlysis it is known that the analyzed curriculum still needs improvement in some components

1. I.         Introduction

Permendiknas number 22, 23, 24 year 2006 on School Based Curriculum (SBC) assigns school to design, develop, and implement curriculum in accordance with situation, condition, and superiority of local potential. The principles to develop SBC are (1) based on the potential, progress, needs and interests of learners and their environment; (2) diverse and integrated; (3) responsive to the advancement of science, technology, and art; (4) relevant to the needs of life; (5) comprehensive and continuous; (6) lifelong learning; (7) the balance between national and regional interests.

Based on those principles, SBC are highly relevant to the concept of decentralization of education in line with the implementation of regional autonomy and the concept of School Based Management (SBM) including school autonomy. Local governments can be freer to improvise in improving the quality of education. Schools together with the school committees were also given autonomy to design their own curriculum appropriate with the needs on the ground.

One of the failures in the implementation of the curriculum in the past is the uniformity of the curriculum from Sabang to Merauke without considering the real situation in the field and disregarding the superiority of local potential. Schools are the city has the same curriculum with schools in the remote areas, so do schools in industrial areas with schools in the coastal areas. Thus, the curriculum will be less operational because it does not give sufficient competence to students to develop themselves and regions.

Beside those negative sides as mentioned above, SBC also has positive impact; one of them is giving freedom to teacher and school to create their own curriculum in agreement with the circumstances of students, schools and environmental conditions. Schools together with school committees can formulate an appropriate curriculum suitable with the needs, circumstances and conditions of the school environment. Schools can coordinate with education stakeholders, for example in the sectors of industry, handicrafts, tourism, farmers, fisherman, professional organizations, and so on so that the curriculum made by the school completely in accordance with the needs on the ground.

Unfortunately, teachers are still used to run teaching learning process as outlined in the syllabus or lesson in 1994. Though given freedom in the present curriculum teachers are not ready yet to take advantages of the flexibility as indicated in SBC. With the given autonomy, teachers’ creativity should emerge, as they can be drafter of writing their own lesson plans.

The previous phenomenon has driven the writer’s curiosity to examine the present curriculum, i.e. the implementation of SBC in SMAN 1 Baregbeg, a state school in Ciamis,West Java. This study is worth analyzing since it tries to explore the analysis of curriculum based on some theories in curriculum development. Those theories will be elaborated in the next part of this paper included in the theoretical framework as follows:

 

1. II.                Theoretical Framework

Print (1993:8) cites some of the well known definitions of curriculum as follows:

–          All of the learning of students which is planned by and directed by the school to attain its educational goals (Ralph Tyler, 1949)

–          By  “curriculum” we mean the planned experiences offered to the learner under the guidance of the school (D.K. Wheeler, 1967)

–          The curriculum of a school, or a course, or a classroom can be conceived of as a series of planned events that are intended to have educational consequences for one or more students (E. Eisner, 1979)

–          We define curriculum as a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities for person to be educated (G. Saylor, W. Alexander&A.J. Lewis, 1981)

–          The learning experiences of students, in so far as they are expressed or anticipated in foals and objectives, plans and designs for learning and the implementation of these plans and designs in school environments (M.Skillbeck, 1984)

–          The curriculum is the plans made for guiding learning in schools, usually represented in retrievable documents of several levels of generality, and the actualization of those plans in the classroom, as experienced by the learners and as recorded by an observer, those experiences take place in a learning environment which also influences what is learned (A. Glatthorn, 1987)

–          Curriculum is a goal or a set of values, which are activated through a development process culminating in classroom experiences for students. The degree to which those experiences are a true representation of the envisioned goal or  goals is a direct function of the effectiveness of the curriculum development efforts (J. Wiles&J. Bondi, 1989)

Print concludes that curriculum is defined as all the planned learning opportunities offered to learners by the educational institution and the experiences learners encounter when the curriculum is implemented. This includes those activities that educators have devised for learners whic are invariably represented in the form of a written document and the process whereby teachers make decisions to implement those activities given interaction with context variables such as learners, resources, teachers and the learning environment (1993: 9)

He (1993:9) also argues that a curriculum consists of:

1. Planned learning experiences
2. Offered within an educational institution
3. Represented as a document
4. Includes experiences resulting from implementing that document

Meanwhile Richards (2001: vi) states that curriculum development is an essentially practical activity since it seeks to improve the quality of language teaching through the use of systematic planning, development, and review practices in all aspects of a language program.

He (2001: 10) adds that language curriculum development deals with such questions as follows:

1. What procedures can be used to determine the content of a language program?
2. What are learners’ needs?
3. How can learners’ needs be determined?
4. What contextual factors need to be considered in planning a language program?
5. What is the nature of aims and objectives in teaching and how can these be developed?
6. What factors are involved in planning syllabus and the units of organization in a course?
7. How can good teaching be provided in a program?
8. What issues are involved in selecting, adapting, and designing instructional materials?
9. How can measure the effectiveness of a language program?

Richards further emphasizes that curriculum development focuses on determining what knowledge, skills, and values students learn in schools, what experiences should be provided to bring about intended learning outcomes, and how teaching and learning in schools or educational system can be planned, measured and evaluated. It describes an interrelated set of processes that focuses on designing, revising, implementing, and evaluating language programs (2001: 1)

The mentioned writer also differentiates between curriculum development and syllabus. He says that a syllabus design is the process of developing a syllabus. Meanwhile, curriculum development is a more comprehensive process than syllabus design. It includes the process that are used to determine the needs of a group of learners, to develop aims or objectives for a program to address those needs, to determine an appropriate syllabus, course structure, teaching methods, and materials, and carry out an evaluation of the language program that result from these process (2001: 2)

After differentiating between syllabus and curriculum development, Richards asserts the assumptions underlying early approaches to syllabus design as follows:

–          The basic units of language are vocabulary and grammar

–          Learners everywhere have the same needs

–          Learners’ needs are identified exclusively in terms of language needs

–          The process of learning a language is largely determined by the textbook

–          The context of teaching is English as a foreign language (f2001: 15-16)

The terms curriculum studies refers to a very broad field of inquiry that deals with what happens in school and other educational institution, the planning of instruction, and the study of how curriculum in a school context refers to the whole body of knowledge that students acquire in schools. Rodgers (1989: 26) cited in Richards (2001: 39) comments that syllabi, which prescribe the content, be covered by a given course, from only a small part of the total school program. Curriculum is a far broader concept. It is all those activities in which students engage under the auspices of the school. This includes not only what pupils learn, but also how they learn it, how teachers help them learn using what supporting materials, styles, and methods of assessment and in what kind of facilities.

Tyler (1950: 1) cited in richard (2001: 39) proposes four fundamental questions that must be answared  in developing any curriculum and plan of instruction as follows:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? (aims and objectives)
2. What educational experiences can be provided that is likely to attain these purposes? (content)
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? (organization)
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? (evaluation)

Tyeler’s model or variations of it soon penetrated wide areas of educational thought and practice and curriculum and training manuals were soon full of models such as the following (Inglis1975):

1. Need (aims and objectives)
2. Plan (strategies and tactics)
3. Implementation (methods and techniques)
4. Review (evaluation and consolidation) (Richards, 2001: 40)

Nicholls and Nicholls (1972: 4) cited in Richards (2001: 40) describe curriculum development as involving four stages:

1. The careful examination, drawing on all available sources of knowledge and informed judgment, of the objectives of teaching, whether in particular subject courses or over the curriculum as a whole
2. The development and trial use in schools of those methods and materials which are judged most likely to achieve the objectives which teachers agreed upon
3. The assessment to the extent to which the development work has in fact achieved its objectives, this part of the process may be expected to provoke new thought about the objectives themselves
4. The final element is therefore feedback of all the experience gained, to provide a starting point for further study.

Rodgers (1989: 27) cited in Richards (2001: 41) observes that the curricular systems-design model has been prescriptive and rule-driven. It describes a linear sequence of events comprising formulation of objectives, selection, of content, task analysis, design of learning activities, definition of behavior outcomes and evaluative measures for determining the achievement of non-achievement of these outcomes.

Richards assumes that curriculum development focuses on needs analysis, situational analysis, planning learning outcomes, course organization, selecting and preparing teaching materials, providing for effective teaching, and evaluation. These elements are viewed as a forming network of interacting systems. The notion of system suggests that change in one part of the system has effects on other parts of the system (2001: 40)

Clark (1987: xii-xiii) cited in Richards (2001: 43) identifies the following components of the process of curriculum renewal:

The previous statements have underlined some theories about curriculum development. The coming part of this paper will investigating the analysis of the implementation of school based curriculum in the school curriculum of SMAN 1 Baregbeg, Ciamis, West Java, Indonesia

1. III.             An analysis of the school curriculum of SMAN 1 Baregbeg, Ciamis

The curriculum will be analyzed based on what Jack C. Richards suggested in his book entitled Curriculum Development in Language Teaching consisting of:

1. Need analysis
2. Situation analysis
3. Planning goals and learning outcomes
4. Course planning and syllabus design
5. Providing for effective teaching
6. The role design of instructional materials
7. Appropriate to evaluation

The analysis is as follows:

1. 1.      Need Analysis

Richard (2001: 51) says that needs analysis are procedures used to collect information about learners’ need. The goal of needs analysis is to collect information that can be used to develop a profile of the language needs of a group of learners in order to be able to make decisions about the goals and content of a language course (2001: 90). This school curriculum has tried to consider the need analysis especially the learners’ need. It is mentioned as follows:

1. 1.      Peserta didik memiliki posisi sentral untuk mengembangkan kompetensinya agar menjadi manusia yang beriman dan bertakwa kepada Tuhan YME, berakhlak mulia, sehat, berilmu, cakap, kreatif, mandiri, dan menjadi warganegara yang demokratis serta bertanggung jawab. Untuk mendukung pencapaian tujuan tersebut, pengembangan kompetense peserta didik disesuaikan dengan potensi, perkembangan, kebutuhan, dan kepentingan peserta didik serta tuntutan lingkungan.
2. 2.      Beragam dan terpadu. Kurikulum dikembangkan dengan memperhatikan keragaman karakteristik peserta didik, kondisi daerah, dan jenjang serta jenis pendidikan tanpa memebedakan agama, suku, budaya, dan adat istihadat, serta status sosial ekonomi dan gender. Kurikulum meliputi substansi komponen muatan wajib kurikulum, muatan lokal, dan pengembangan diri secara terpadu, serta disususn dalam keterkaitan dan kesinambungan yang bermakna dan tepat antarsubstansi
3. 3.      Ilmu pengetahuan, teknologi, dan seni berkembang secara dinamis. Oleh karena itu, semangat dan isikurikulum mendorong peserta didik untuk mengikuti dan memanfaatkan secara tepat perkembangan ilmu pengetahuanmm teknologi, dan budaya.

 

1. 2.      Situation Analysis

Richard says that situation analysis is an analysis of factors in the context of a planned or present curriculum project that is made in order to assess their potential impact on the project. These factors may be political, social, economics, or intuitional (2001: 91). Procedures used in situation anaysis are, (a) consultation with representatives of as many relevant groups as possible, such as parents, students, teachers, administrators, and government officials; (b) study and analysis of relevant documents, such as course apprasial documents, government reports, ministry of education guidelines, and policy papers, teaching materials, curriculum documents, (c) observation of teachers and students in relevant learning settings; (d) surveys of opinions of relevant parties; (e) review of available literature related to the issue (2001: 92-93).

This school has implemented the situational analysis which is covered in the school curriculum by considering the following factor:

1. 1.      Relevan dengan kebutuhan kehidupan. Pengembangan kurikulum dilakukan dengan melibatkan pemangku kepentingan (stake holder) untuk menjamin relevansi pendidikan dengan kebutuhan kehidupan, termasuk di dalamnya kehidupan kemasyarakatan, dunia usaha, dan dunia kerja. Oleh karena itu, pengembangan keterampilan pribadi, berpikir, sosial, akademik, dan keterampilan vokasional merupakan keniscayaan.
2. 2.      Menyeluruh dan berkesinambungan. Substansi kurikulum mencangkup keseluruhan dimensi kompetensi, bidang kajian keilmuan dan mata pelajaran yang direncanakan dan disajikan secara kesinambungan antar semua jenjang pendidikan.
3. 3.      Belajar sepanjang hayat. Kurikulum diarahkan pada proses pengembangan, pembudayaan, dan pemberdayaan peserta didik yang berlangsung sepanjang hayat.
4. 4.      Seimbang antara kepentingan nasional dan kepentingan daerah. Kurikulum daerah untuk membagun kehidupan masyarakat, berbangsa dan bernegara.
5. 3.      Planning Goals and Learning Outcomes

Richards (2001: 112) states that the nature of aims and objectives, however, is not necessarily straightforward because they refer to knowledge, skills, and values those educational planners believe learners to develop. He adds that in developing educational programs, curriculum planners draw on their understanding both of the present and long-term needs of learners and of society as well as the planners’ belief and ideologies ebout schools, learners, and teachers. These belief and values provide the philosophical underpinnings for educational programs and the justification for the kinds of aims they contain (2001: 113)

This school has implemented the planning goals and learning outcomes, which are coveredin, the goals and objectives of the school curriculum as follows:

1. 1.      Upaya meningkatkan kerjasama yang erat dari semua personal yang ada dalam peningkatan mutu dan disiplin yang tinggi
2. 2.      Menggalakan/memberdayakan MGMP/MGP sebagai salah satu sumbe belajar guru
3. 3.      Upaya pemberdayaan perpustakaan sekolah yang representative menuju electronic library
4. 4.      Untuk tertib dlaam perencanaan dan kompeten dalam membuat dan menyajikan
5. 5.      Siap membangun bahan ajar untuk setiap mata pelajaran
6. 6.      Menjadikan sarada dan jaringan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi sebagai media pembellajaran
7. 7.      Pemantapan dan pengembangan ekstrakurikuler
8. 8.      Menumbuhkan persaingan/kompetitip dalam berprestasi
9. 9.      Pembinaan BK
10. 10.  Pemberdayaan Osis dengan melalui/diawali Diklat dan amanah realitas kegiatan.

 

1. 4.      Course Planning and Syllabus Design

In course planning and syllabus design, Richards (2001: 145) examines the dimensions of course development as follows:

–          Developing a course rationale: a brief written description of the reasons for the course and the nature of it

–          Describing the entry and exit levels: to know the level at which the program will start and the level learners may be expected to reach at the end of the course

–          Choosing course content: reflect the planners’ assumptions about the nature of language, language use, and language learning. What the most essential elements or units of language are, and how these can be organized as an efficient basis for second language learning

–          Sequencing course content: the distribution of content throughout the course, known as planning the scope and sequence of the course

–          Planning the course content: selecting a syllabus framework and developing instructional blocks

–          Preparing the scope and sequence plan: consist of a listing of the module or units and their contents and an indication of how much teaching time each block in the course will require

The school curriculum of SMAN 1 Baregbeg Ciamis have tried to plan the course and design the syllabus which are described in chapter 3 about the structure and content of the curriculum by developing a course rationale, describing the entry and exit levels, choosing course content, sequencing course content, planning the course content and preparing the scope and sequence plan.

1. 5.      Providing for Effective Teaching

Richard (2001: 198) examines factors that are involved in creating conditions for good teaching to take place. He emphasized that quality teaching is achieved not only as a consequence of how well teachers teach but through creating contexts and work environments that can facilitate good teaching. The four factors to be considered in providing for effective teaching are as follows:

1. Institutional factor: the ethos and environment that exist within a school, the kinds of communication and decision making that take place, and the management and staffing structure they support
2. Teacher factor: determine the success of a program, good teachers can often compensate for deficiencies in the curriculum, the materials, or the resources they make use in their teaching (2001: 209)
3. Teaching factor: the teaching practices that occur within a program, how these can be characterized, and how quality teaching can be achieved and maintained (2001: 214)
4. Learner factors: the extent to which teaching achieves its goals will also dependent on how succesfully learners have been considered in the planning and delivery process (2001: 223)

The curriculum of this school presents information about the school profile that it can be assumed that this school provides effective teaching. It can be seen from institutional factor that this school is located in a comfortable location, i.e. behind Galuh University on Jl. RE. Martadinata 150 Ciamis. From the teachers’s factor, we can know that almost all of the teachers are qualified enough; it can be proved from the teachers’ educational background that there are 11 teachers who have master degree, 41 teachers who are S1 degree and none who is diploma degree. From the teaching factor, it can be seen that this school has achieved many rewards in many educational competitions. Moreover, the last from the learner factors it can be seen that the amount of the learners are 435 students from six classes.

1. 5.      The Role and Design of Instructional Materials

Instructional materials generally serve as the basis for much of the language input learners receive and the language practice that occurs in the classroom. Cunningsworth (1995: 7) cited in Richards (2001: 251) summarizes the role of materials (particularly course books) in language teaching as:

–          A resource for presentation materials (spoken and written)

–          A source of activities for learner practice and communicative interaction

–          A reference source for learner on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and so on

–          A source of stimulation ans ideas for classroom activities

–          A syllabus (where they reflect learning objective that have already been determined)

–          A support for less experienced teachers who have yet to gain confidence

Some teachers use instructional materials as their primary teaching resource. The materials provide the basis for the content of lessons, the balance of skills taught, and the kinds of language practice students take part in (Richards, 2001: 252).

From the syllabus and lesson plan it can be seen that instructional materials used in this school is not adequate enough because the teachers only refer to one book as the main source. Nevertheless, from the interview with the teachers it is known that in fact, teachers use many resource, they are LKS and BSE (Buku Sumber Elektronik) from Kemendiknas. Therefore, it can be concluded that the materials for the teaching learning process is sufficient.

7. Approaches to Evaluation

Richards (2001: 286) states that curriculum evaluation is concerned with answering questions:          

–          Is the curriculum achieving its goals?

–          What is happening in classrooms and schools where it is being implemented?

–          Are those affected by the curriculum (e.g. teachers, administrators, students, parents, employers) satisfied with the curriculum?

–          Have those involved in developing and teaching a language course done a satisfactory job?

–          Does the curriculum compare favorably with others of its kind?

He adds that approaches to evaluation focuses on collecting information about different aspects of a language program in order to understand how the program works, and how succesfully it works, enabling different kinds of decisions to be made about the program, such as whether the program responds to learners’ needs, whether further training is required for teachers working in the program, or whether students are learning sufficiently from it (2001: 286)

There is end; this paper has examined the school curriculum of SMAN 1 Baregbeg Ciamis based on the theories in developing curriculum proposed by Jack C. Richards. The next part is the conclusion, which will be the last part of this writing.

III. Conclusion

This paper is written because of some disappointing phenomenon happen in the society regarding to the implementation of school based curriculum in which there are still many schools which still find difficulties in designing and developing their own curriculum.

The curriculum of a state school in Ciamis is taken as the object to be analyzed. By applying the theories proposed by Jack C.Richards it is known that the curriculum of SMAN 1 Baregbeg still needs improvement although in some aspects this curriculum is adequate enough.

In conclusion, it is hoped that this paper can contribute to the development of the analyzed curriculum, i.e. the school of SMAN 1 Baregbeg Ciamis

References:

Giroux, Henry A.et all, Eds. (1981). Curriculum and Instruction, McCutchan Publishing Corporation

Print, Murray (1993). Curriculum Development and Design, Allen & Unwin Pty. Ltd Ciamis

Richards, Jack C. (2001). Curriculum Development

Sukmadinaa, Nana Syaodih, Pengembangan Kurikulum Teori dan Praktek, PT Remaja Rosdakarya

Technique for encouraging college students to become good readers and writers

Purwati

Galuh University

 

           

            Chronologically, the psychical dominant of college students is very mature. The problem is that they have been so far treated immaturely as adult learners. It is reflected in the teaching learning process in their prior education. The instructions are delivered through teachers’ oriented. The test and assessments are also teachers’ centered. Therefore, it is undeniable that there are many college students who find difficulties in reading and writing.

            This paper puts together the techniques for encouraging college students to become good readers and writers. Divided into three major parts, this paper presents the problems of college students to become good readers and writers in the first part, followed by discussing who good readers and writers are in the nex part. The proposed technique comes in the last part. 

            Discussing college students with their unique phenomenon since they already adult readers and write academically, this paper comes to the conclusion that teachers of college students have to bear big responsibility in helping their students to become good writers and readers. This paper proposes three techniques namely learning contract, critical thinking, and information access technique that can be applied by the teachers of college students by considering which one that will be workable in their own colleges.

Keyword: learning contract, critical thinking, and information access technique

 

1. 1.      College Students’ Problem of Being Good Readers and Writers

It is undeniable that our college students find many obstacles in reading and writing academic papers. We can see from their difficulty in answering essay questions demanding critical thinking in which they are asked to think critically by synthesizing the answers they have in minds and constructing them into their sentences. Not intending to blame each other, this can be caused by the wrong techniques their teachers did during their prior educations. One of the examples is the spoon-feeding techniques the students encounter while they are junior and high school students even until they are college students in which some of the teachers are still using this kind of technique regarding that college students are not adult learners yet, they are just an extension of senior high school students.  This superficial technique does not encourage students to be able to think critically. Students come to class with blank minds and teachers explain the materials all of the time during the teaching learning process. Teachers’ centered happens. It is only the teachers who have autonomy to select the material, use the method as they wish in delivering them and design the tests to asses the students understanding about the materials. Therefore, it is unavoidable that the students are not used to spend their time to read assigned books and write responses based on their reading. It is getting worse that the students are not motivated to read and write from their surroundings, either. Teachers have not recognized yet how students’ experiences obtained in their real life also play an important role in grinding down their ability to read and write.

The example is the teachers’ role in managing wall magazines in which they do not provide opportunities for their students to perform their reading and writing competence by letting them to manage the wall magazine freely. Students have to consult the materials to the teachers first before posing them all on the wall. Students are not given autonomy to read and write whatever subjects they are not interested in and concerned with. It is in contradiction with project-based instruction in which teachers let the students to choose the project they like most and give freedom to them to expand.

Now, teachers of college students have to deal with this kind of live experiences their students had in their previous education that they bring to class. It is not an easy task for the teachers of college students because their students are now demanded to read many scientific books and write many scholarly papers.

Fortunately, teachers and students are very much helped by the spread of information technology in this global era. In today’s information society, becoming information literature is no longer an option but a must. Understanding what information is where to find it, how to evaluate its quality and then using the relevant information for problem solving can facilitate adult learning on many levels.

The previous part has described college students’ difficulties to become good readers and writers because the wrong techniques they have encountered during their prior education. The next part of this paper examines the characteristics of good readers and writers.

 

II. Who Good Readers And Writers are

            There are several factors involved in considering what is good writing/reading and what is not. A good writing must flow smoothly via sentence fluency, have interesting ideas, use correct word choice and be well organized throught througout. To list all the many characteristics of good readers are impossible, however, a good reader sometime reads for literal experience, reading to be informed, form an initial understanding and develop an interpretation. In my opinion, for a piece of writing to be considered good quality writing there are a few aspects that the writing, the main theme. The ideas are strong when the message is clear, not garbled. The writer chooses details that are interesting, important, an informative, often and the kinds of details the reader would not normally anticipate or predict. Successful writers do not tell the readers things they already know; e.g., ‘it was a sunny day, and the sky was blue, the clouds were fluffy white.’ They notice what others overlook, seek out the extraordinary, the unusual, the bits and pieces of life that others might not see. (www.megaessys.com/viewpaper/26669.html)

Besides, there are some characteristics of good writer that his writing has a clear defined purpose, makes a clear point, supports that point with specific information, which is clearly connected and arranged. Unfortunately, college students still have to struggle hard to be able write well, they often find difficulties in writing the assignments or reporting the project assigned by the teachers. In the next part of this paper, there are three proposed techniques that can be applied by the teachers to help their students ro become good readers and writers.

III. Proposed Technique

Refering to the above explanations in the previous parts of this paper stating that the literacy of college students in Indonesia is still law, the present part of this writing discusses the ways how teachers help them to become good readers and writers. Three techniques are proposed in this paper, they are learning contract, critical thinking technique and information access techniques. Before exposing them all, learning contract will start the discussion as clarified as follows:

 

3.1. Learning Contract

            Refering to the findings mentioned in the prior parts and to bridge the gap between the teachers’ orientation and the learners’ need and interests, what teacher of college students can do in facing this challanging task is by setting a precise instruction in class, i.e. designing in appropriate method, facilitating the students with suitable materials, assesing the accomplishment of their students properly, etc. One of the technique that can be applied as proposed in this paperis Learning Contract. Galbraith (Ed) in his book Adult Learning Method states that a learning contract is a formal agreement written by a learner which details what will be learned, how the learning will be accomplished, the period of time involved and the specific evaluation criteria to be used in judging the completion of the learning. The learning contract is a method that is used to individualize the learning process. The use of the word contract suggests that what is written in the agreement is important, legitimate and fair to the party or parties concerned. The learner is responsible for establishing the parameter for the learning effort. However, as with other instructional methods, flexibility is important (267). Assuming that college students are already adult learners whose self-concept moves from being dependent toward being an independent self-directed human beings, acumulate a growing reservoir of experience that can be used for learning, whose readiness to learn is linked with the develomental tasks of their life roles and whose time perspective toward learning shift from postponed to immediate application and from subject-centeredness to performance-centeredness (Knowles, 1980:44-45), teachers can apply this technique to develop college students to become good readers and writers. Before starting the course, teachers and students design an agreement what instruction they will follow during the teaching and learning process, what materials that will be used and what assessments to measure the students’ achievements. It is better to reconcile between the teachers’ objectives and learners’ needs and wants toward the course. The choosen materials are those which college students are interested in and concerned with, for example in the teaching of literature, teachers can use popular literature such as ‘Harry Potter’ besides canonized literature which hoped that it will encourage them to write by responding to the assigned texts. Therefore, the students’ critical thinking can be sharpened. The issue of college students’ critical thinking is also examined in this paper presented in the next section.

 

 

 

 

 

3.2. Critical Thinking Technique

            In the above section, this paper has described Learning Contract Technique as one of the ways to develop college students to become good readers and writers. In the present context, many teachers of junior and senior high schools have not tried to apply this technique yet because many of them are still using spoon-feeding techniques. By using the mentioned technique, teachers do not encourage the students to think critically. It can be seen from the college students’ difficulty in answering essay questions demanding their reading and writing skill. Actually, this problem can be minimized if the teachers use one of the other instructions also proposed in this paper is one such trend called as project-based-instruction. ‘In its simplest form, project-based learning involves a group of learners taking on an issue close to their hearts, developing a response, and presenting the results to a wider audience’ (Wrigley, 1998, p. 13). Through project-based instruction, adult learners develop their language, literacy, and problem-solving skills as they research an issue of concern or interest. Writing often plays a central role in project-based instruction. For example, learners in one ESOL project discussed, researched, and wrote down traditional recipes (GaerS). Another decided on themes and then wrote and enacted short plays and skits. Yet another group of students decided to write an orientation handbook for future students of their literacy program.  Still other projects have involved research and writing to create educational materials on health (North and Campbell, 1998). Project may last only a few days to several months. In some projects, students serve as apprentices, as, for example, when they learn from their teacher how to put together their own newspaper. Tasks, timeline, and responsibilities are often posted to track the status of a project and sometimes students to keep budgets. Often such projects have real audience and a goal of affecting change in a community. Although no research studies have yet been conducted that study this approach to instruction in adult contexts, proponents claim it helps adults to develop skills that are more closely matched to the literacy requirements of work and everyday life. Project-based instruction encourages collaborative learning requirements of work and authentic purposes. This form of instruction also helps to make visible the processes that are usually hidden from learners in typical programs, such as the publishing process (Wrigley, 1998)

            Unfortunately, in Indonesia context, many teachers of junior and senior high schools have not tried to apply this instruction yet. Consequently, teachers of college students have to deal with this kind of live experiences their students had in their previous education that they bring to class.  It is not an easy task for the teachers of college students because their students are now demanded to read many scientific books and write many scholarly papers. What the teachers can do is by giving project-based instruction in which the students  are given freedom to choose their own project not necessarily job-relation but also literacy at workplace which interests and concerns those students most. For example is asking them to read and write about problem-solving to develop their critical thinking assuming that the capacity of humans for good for good reasoning can bu nurtured and developed by an educational process aimed directly at that end. It assumes that sound critical thinking maximizes our ability to solve problems of importance to us by helping us both to avoid common mistakes and to proceed in the most rational and logical fashion. Based on the above explanations, the other techniques that can be  used by the teachers of college students to develop their students to become good readers and writers also proposed in this paper is by applying Critical Thinking Technique. Brookfield states that critical thinking seems to hold the promise of constituting a universal theory of adult learning and, by implication, a template for adult education practice. If critical thinking is uniqually adult learning process, then postering critical thinking becomes by implication, a uniquely adult learning process. As a process, critical thinking involves adults in recognizing and researching the assumptions that undergird their thoughts and actions. In terms of its purpose, critical thinking tends to focus on the scrutiny of the two particular and interrelated, sets of assumptions. First, there are those assumptions that frame how we view power relation in our lives. Second, the purpose of critical thinking is uncovering hegemonic assumptions. Therefore, one of first things teachers of critical thinking need to confront is the hostility students will exhibit to the idea that they need to reexamine any of the ideas or actions that they are the outset of their efforts. Their entreaties that critical thinking is good for people will do nothing to convince adult learners of its educational validity, or of its relevance to their own lives. It is crucial that teachers confront and acknowledge this hostility at the outset.  One way to respond to it is to make sure those teachers of adult model a public commitment to, and engagement in, critical thinking before they ask their students to do this (Galbraith.Ed., 1998:317-318)

            Referring to the understanding of the prior explanations, teachers of college students can apply this technique by designing critical reading and writing activities. It happens when readers, i.e. college students make explicit the assumptions authors hold about what constitutes legitimate knowledge, take alternatives perspectives on the knowledge being offered so that this knowledge comes to be seen as culturally constructed, undertake positive and negative apparaisal of the grounds for, and expresssion of, this knowledge, and analyze commonly held educational ideas for the extent to which they oppose democratic values (332). By doing so it is hoped that college students will bear critical thinking in their minds so that they will be able to answer essay questions more comprehensively, read their textbook more easily and produce their own writing more often.

            To this end, this paper has proposed two technique that teachers of college students can apply in developing their students to become good writers and readers. Another technique that will also be examined in this writing is Information Acces Technique assuming that information continues to proliferate at an outstanding rate, finding, evaluating, and educators. Therefore, the next section elaborates this technique following the discussion in this paper.

 

2.4.3. Information Access Technique

            In the previous section, this paper has examined Critical Thinking Technique as an alternative way that teachers of college students can use to develop their students to become food readers and writers as the main issue revealed in this paper. In the present section, Information Access Technique is also investigated to enrich the teachers of college students’ knowledge in facing the challenging task as teachers of students in modern era.

            College students become independent, self-directed learners who know how and where to find information they need. Because there is also much information available, they sometimes feel overwhelmed and helpless both in acquiring and appropriately using information. Innovative uses of technology may represent one of the most significant of the promising trends. In growing numbers, adult literacy learners are surfing the Web to research areas that interest them, communicating through e-mail, creating Web pages, and forming on-line groups of various kinds (Rosen, 2000). In way never before available, adult students can find audiances to read and respond to their texts. They can combine visual and print literacy to communicate their ideas, and they can form long-distance collaborations with others. Each of the National Institute for Literacy’s regional LINCS (Literacy Information and Communications System) sites now has links to resources by and for learners. For example, Southern LINCS (http://hub2.coe.utk.edu.html) has links to learner-developed projects on topics such as stress, home remedies, and the influence of television commercials on viewers and ways in which inmates can keep in touch with the outside world. Brown University’s literacy center maintains a site at which adult beginning readers can post their poetry, short stories and essays (http://www.brown.edu/department/swearercenter/literacyresources/learner/html) . Dave’s ESL Cafe http://www.eslcafe.com contains more that twenty discussion forums for ESOL students and has provided the means for thousands of ESOL students to become pen pals with other ESOL students from around the world. Some programs also publish their curriculum materials and teaching tips on-line. Write on Nashvile http://cls.one.utk.edu/lpm/writeon/html, for exampl, gives teachers tips on how to prepare for a public event in which students read their stories. (The Literacy List, a comprehensive, hyperlinked list of adult literacy, basic education, and ESOL Web sites, is maintained by David Rosen and can be found at http://alri.org/literacy.html)

            Information Access Technique can be used to help them learn and teach any content area. Adult educators have a responsibility to help learners acquire and skillfully use information technique asses, information resources, and technology in order to effectively assist adult learners to acquire these skills. Adult learners have a responsibility to take seriously the evaluation of information and determine its scope and relevance to the problem or topic at hand (Galbraith, 1998: 374)

            Referring to the above explanations, the first step that teachers of college students can do is defining the problem, issue, or question and determining what information is needed. A search strategy will help specify where the information might be located. The strategy might include questions that will guide the search and sources that will be contacted. It will be similar with to a map with designated stops to pick up fuel (information) that will help to arrive at the destination (knowledge). In finding the information, college students need to critically evaluate whether it is reliable and valid. For the information students decide credible, they need to synthesize the data from all the sources in order to understand and organize the information. They might put it into written from such as a report or memo. If they are looking for information to use orally, they might prepare an outline. After they use the information, they might decide that they need to research at a specific part of what they found to clarify it more.

            Up to this part, this paper has described the problems in literacy faced by college students, the characteristics to become good readers and writers and the proposed techniques to overcome the problem. What can be concluded from this paper is that teachers of college students can help their learners to develop as good good readers and writers through many ways. It is a matter of willingness of the teachers of college students to adopt which kind of techniques as proposed in this paper that they consider will be workable in their workplace. Hopefully this poor simple writing can help teachers of college students to bear their big responsibility to be able to know their student better as assigned by the government ruled in permendiknas no 16 year 2007 so that they can help them to become good readers and writers.

 

Refferences:

Gaer, S. (1998). Learning More and Teaching Less. Focus on Basics, 2 (D).

Galbraith, Michael W. Ed (1998). Adult Learning Method . Krieger Publishing Comp.

Knowles, M.S (1980). The Modern Practice of Adult Education. Andragogy Versus Pedagogy. Eglewood Cliffs: Prencite Hall/Cambridge et al.

Norton, M., & Campbell, P. (1998). Learning for our Health: A Reseource for Participatory Literacy and Health Education. Edmontion, Canada: Learning Centre Literacy Association.

Rosen, D. (2000). Using Electronic Technology in Adult Literacy Education in J. Commings, B. Garner, & C. Smith (Eds.). Annual Review of Adult Learning and Literacy: Volume 1 (pp. 304-316). San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass.

Wrigley, H. S. (1998). Knowledge in Action. The Promise of Preject-based (www.megaessays.com/viewpaper/26669.html)

 

 

This article is taken from a published book entitles “Proceeding: International Conference on Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Page: 103-108

 

Copyright © by the Muhammadiyah University of Purwokerto 2010

Allrights reserved

 

ISBN                           : 978-979-97919-4-8

Editor                          : Dr. Furqonul Azies, M. Pd.

Selection Team            : Bastudin As-Suaidy, S.S.

  Condro Nur Alim

Language Editor         : Khristianto

First Impression          : June, 2010

 

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PLANNING LESSONS

Purwati

 

Abstract

            This paper presents planning lesson. It starts with permendiknas number 22, 23, 24 year 2006 about School Based Curriculum in which it gives chance and freedom for the school and teachers to develop their own curriculum, syllabus and lesson plan though in fact it is unworkable. Therefore, that is the reason of writing this paper. This paper aims at describing lesson plan comprising in five major parts. The first part is the introduction. The next part highlights the pre-planning consisting of four sections: (1) activities, (2) skills, (3) language and (4) content. The tird part elaborates the main issue discussed in this paper the plan dividing into four sections: (1) the planning continuum (2) making a plan consisting of three subsections: 2a.pre-planning background, 2b. Pre-planning decision, 2c.the plan (3) the formal plan serving in four subsections; 3a.class descrption&timetable fit, 3b.lesson aims, 3c.activities, procedures&timing, and 3d.problems&possibilities and (4) planning a sequence of lessons presenting in five subsections; 4a.before&during, 4b.short&long-terms goal, 4c.thematic strands, 4d.language planning and 4e.activity balance. The ways of using lessong plansis is in the fourth part dividing in two sections: (1) action&reaction clarified in three subsections; 1a.magic moments, 1b.sensible diversion, 1c.unforeseen problems and (2) plans as records and research tools. The fifth part presents the example of lesson plans. The conclusion comes in the last part utilizing the previous explanations in investigating the issue discussed in this paper.

Keyword: pre-planning, the plan, using lesson plan, example of lesson plan

 

INTRODUCTION

Permendiknas number 22, 23, 24 year 2006 on School Based Curriculum (SBC) assigns schools to design, develop, and implement curriculum in accordance with situation, condition, and superiority of local potential. The principles to develop SBS are (1) based on the potential, progress, needs and interests of learners and their environtment; (2) diverse and integrated; (3) responsive to the advancement of science, technology, and art; (4) relevant to the needs of life; (5) comprehensive and continues; (6) life-long learning; (7) the balance between national and regional intersests. Based on these principles, SBC are highly relevant to the concept of decentralization of education in line with the implementation of regional uatonomy and the concept of School Based Management (SBM) including school authonomy. Local goverment can be freer to improvise in improving the quaity of education. School togather with the school commitees were also given authonomy to design their own curriculum appropriate with the needs on the ground. One of the flairures in the implementation of the curriculum in the past is the uniformity of the curriculum from Sabang to Merauke without considering the real situation in the field and disgarding the superiority of local potential. School in the city have the same curricululum with schools in industrial areas with schools in the coastal areas. Thus, the curriculum will be less operational because it does not give sufficient competence for students to develop themselves and their regions.

            Besides those negative sides as mentioned above, SBC also has positive impact, one of them is giving freedom to teachers and schools to create their own curriculum in agreement with the circumstances of students, schools and environmental conditions. Schools together with school commitees can formulate an appropriate curriculum suitable with the needs, circumstances and conditions of the school environment. Schools can coordinate with education stakeholders, for examples in the sectors of industry , handicrafts, tourism, farmers, fisherman, profesional organizations, and so on so that the curriculum made by the school completely in accordance with the needs on the ground.

            Unfortunately, in fact teachers are still used to run teaching learning process as outlined in the syllabus or lesson plan in 1994. Thought given freedom in the present curriculum teachers are not ready yet to take advantages of the flexibility as indicated in School Based C       urriculum.

            With the given authonomy teachers’ creativity should emerge as they can be drafter of writing this essay since it tries to explore lesson plan, especially as revealed by Jeremy Harmer.

            Lesson planning is the art of combining a number of different elements into a coherent whole so that a lesson has an identity which students can recognize, work within, and react to whatever metaphor teachers may use to visualize and create that identity (Harmer, 308). A lesson plan  is a teacher’s detailed description of the course of instruction for an individual lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to duide class instruction. Planning the material is mush more difficult than delivering teach lessons. Planning is when the tea chears look at the curriculum standards and develop the content that matches those standards; they also have to take into consideration the needs of the students they are planning for. The extent of the detail will vary depending on the number of years of experience that the teacher has and the number of time he/she has taught the lesson. Obviously, a teacher with several years of experience may have plans that are much less detailed than beginning teachers. There will be requirements mandated by the school system that employs them regarding their reason sibilities.

            This paper aims at describing lesson plan comprising in five major parts. The first part is introduction. The next part highlights the pre-planning consisting of four sections; (1) activties, (2) skills, (3) language and (4) content. The third part elaborates the main issue discussed in this paper the plan dividing into four sections; (1) the planning continuum, (2) making a plan consisting of three subsections; 2a.pre-planning background, 2b.pre-planning decission, 2c.the plan (3) the formal plan serving in four subsections; 3a.class description&timetable fit, 3b.lesson aims, 3c.activities, procedures&timing, and 3d.problems&possibilities and (4) planning a sequence of lessons presenting in five subsections; 4a.before&during, 4b.short&long terms goal, 4c.thematic strands, 4d.language planning and 4e.activity balance. The way of using lesson plans is in the fourth part dividing in two sections: (1) action&reaction clarified in three subsections; 1a.magic moments, 1b.sensible diversion, 1c.unforeseen problems and (2) plans as records and research tool. The fifth part presents the examples of lesson plans. The conclusion comes in the last part utilizing the previous explanations in investigating the issue discussed in this paper.

PRE-PLANNING

            As stated in the prior part, this division clarifies pre-planning as the first stating point. Before making lesson plan, teachers must consider the language levcel of the students, their educational and cultural background, their likely level of motivation and their different learning styles. They also need the knowledge of the content and organization of the syllabus or curriculum they are working with and the requirements of any exams which the students are working towards.

            To elaborate the pre-planning, this part is divided into four sections revealing the four planning elements are folllows:

1. Activities

Teacher must consider what students will be doing int he classrooms; make decissions about activities almost indepedently of what language or skills they have to teach.

1. Skils

Teachers make a decision about which language skills the students develop and need to plan exactly how they are going to work with the skills and what sub-skills to practice

1. Language

Teachers need to decide what languages to introduce and have the students learn, practice, research or use.

1. Content

Teachers select content which has a good chance of provoking interest and involvement.

With all of the above features in their mind, teahcers can finally pass all their thinking through the filter of practical reality, where their knowledge of the classroom they work in, the equipment they can use, the time they have avaliable, and the attitude of institution they work in all combine to focus their planning  on what they are actually going to do. Now, this paper is in a position to move from pre-planning to the plan itself.

THE PLAN

            The present allotment serving as the third part of this paper discusses how to make lesson plan as the main issue revealed in this paper. As mentioned in introduction in part one, it is divided into four sections. Having done some pre-planning and made decissions about the kind of lesson the teachers want to teach. They can make the lesson plan. This may take a number of different forms, depending upon the circumtances of the lesson and also on their attitude to plannng continuum as described in the following first section as follows;

1. The planning continuum

Teacher may do all the (vague) pre-planning in their head and make actual decissions about what to include in the lessons as they hurry along the  corridor to class.

Theachers are following a course book and they do exactly what the book says, letting the book writers, in effect, do their planning for them.

Teachers walk into class with no real idea of what they are doing to do (the so called jungle path) teachers write formal plans for their classes which detail what they are going to do and why, perhaps because they are requiered to do so by some authority.

1. Maing a plan

Teachers might proceed the following steps of making a plan from pre-planning to  a final plan:

–          Pre-planning beckground: teachers consider the facts that feed into pre-planning decission

–          Pre-planning decision: teachers takes decisions based on the background information.

–          The plan: on the basis of pre-planning decissions teachers now make the plan

1. The formal plan

When teachers are to be observed and/or as part of a training scheme of for reasons of internal quality control, formal plans are sometimes required.

They should contain some or all of the following examples:

–          Class description and timetable fit:

They tell the teachers who the students are and what can be expected of them, can give information about how the group and how individuals in it behave, teachers need to say where the lesson fits in a sequence of classes (the before and after) and teachers incluced information about how the class has been feeling and what kind of activities they have been involved in (e.g. controlled or communicatives, procedures, and timing.

–          Lesson aims

They must be specific and directed towardsan outcome to be measured and should reflect what the teachers hope the students will be able to do. A lesson will often have more than one aim.

–          Activities, procedures, and timing

The main body of a formal plan lists the activities and procedures in the lesson, together with the times the teachers expect each of them to take. Teachers include the aids they are going go use and show teh different interactions which will take place in the class.

–          Problems and possibilities

A good plan tries to predict potential pitfalls and suggests ways of dealing with him. It also includes alternatives in case teachers find it necessary to divert from the lesson sequence they had  hoped follow

1. Planning sequemce of lessons

Planning a sequece of lesson is based on the same principles as planning a single lesson, but there are number of additional issues which need to be paid special attention to:

–          Before and during

Lesson plan is only a proposal of what the teachers hope to achieve but in practice inforeseen things are likely to happen during the course of a lesson therefore teachers need revisit it constantly to update it.

–          Short and long-term goals

Students need short and long-term goals in order to motivate them. Teachers need to build for both goals when they plan a sequence of lessons so that they can hope to give their students a staged progression of succesfully met challenges.

–          Thematic strands

It is better for the teachers to carry the themes over more than one lesson, or at least to reappear, so that students perceive some coherent topic strands as the course progresses. By doing so both teachers and students can refer backwards and forwards both in terms of language and also the topics the teachers ask the students to invest time in considering.

–          Language planning:

Teachers’ decision about how to weave the language through the lesson sequence will be heavily influenced by the need for a balance of activities

–          Activity balance

It is one of the features which will determine the overall level of student involvement in the course. It will also provide the widest range of experience learning styles of the students in the class

            The prior part of this paper hs elaborated the was how to make a lesson plan, in the present part how to use the lesson plan is further described by considering actioan and reaction and also plans as records and research tools.

USING THE LESSON PLAN

            Reffering to the above explanations on the ways how to make lesson plans, this part examines how to use lesson plans assuming however carefully the teachers plan and whatever form their plan takes, they still have to use that plan in the classroom and use their plan as records of learning for refference.

1. Action and Reaction

Teachers’ proposal for action, transformed into action in the calssroom, is bound to evoke some sort of student reaaction, they then have to decide how to cope with that reaction and whether they can continue with their plan or whether they need to modify it as they go along.

A number of reasons why teachers may need to modify their proposal for action once a lesson is taking place are as follows:

–          Magic moments

Teachers have to recognize them when they come along and then take a judgment about whether to allow tjem to develop, rather than denying them life because they do not fit into their plan

–          Sensible diversion

 Teachers take the opportunity to teach language that has suddenly come up, similarly, something might occur to them in terms of nection which they suddenly want to develop on the spot.

–          Unforeseen problems

Often crop up teachers’ plan and cause them to move away from their plan, whether this is a temporary or permanent state of affairs

1. Plan as records and research tools

Written plans are not just proposals for future action but also records of what has taken place, if teachers have time to record how they and the students experienced the lesson, reflecting carefully on successful activities or less successful activities, not only this will help them to use the same activities again, but it will also lead them to think about how they teach and consider changes in both activities and approach, lesson planning in this way allows them to act as their own observers and aids them in their own development.

The above part has examined how to use lesson plan by considering action and reaction and plan as records and research tools. In the next part, this paper presents example of planning, making and using lesson plan.

EXAMPLE OF LESSON PLAN

Subject            : Language Arts

Grade              : Grade 1

Topic               : Words and Actions

Content           : Vocabulary Involving Key Classroom words

Goals

            Students will be able to identify important objects in the classroom. They will also be able to understand common directions given to them in the classroom. Students will be able to ask permission to leave the classroom.

Objectives:

            Given a set of pictures of objects in the classroom, the students will match the picture to the object by placing the picture next to the object. After listening to a direction given by the teacheer, the students will follow that direction by correctly completing the action.

Materials:

            Oxpord Picture Dictionaries indext cards markers

Introduction :

            Through questioning, teacher will establish student’s prior knowledge of common directions (please take out a pencil)

Development :

            Using the picture dictionary as a reference teacher will model the appropriate action. Students will use their own dictionaries to follow along. As students become comfortable, they can model the appropriate actions as they say each word

Practice

            Students will repeat the vocabulary after the teacher while looking at the picrtures, or the  actual object. Students will work with a partner asking each other question about the  classroom and giving each other instruction in English

Checking for Understanding

            Listen to the children pronounciation the vocabulary. Ask the students to act out the given instructions (TPR)

Closure

            Review the vocabulary words. Assign practice work at home

            The above explanation highlights the example of lesson plan. The conclusion of the issue revealed in this paper comes in the following part as follows:

CONCLUSION

            The chalanging question asking why teachers learning process as outlined in the syllabus or lesson plan in 1994 thought given freedom in the present curriculum and why they are not ready yet to take advangtages of the flexibility as indicated in School Based Curriculum is the basis of writing this paper since it tries to explore lesson plan, especially those as revealed by Jeremy Harmer. With the given autonomy, teachers’ creativity should emerge as they can be drafter of writing their own lesson plans. But infact, teachers still find many difficulties in doing so. This inspiring phenomenon drives the writer of this paper to learn more about how to plan, make and use lesson plans correctly.

            From the explanations explored in the previous parts we can learn that it is not an easy task for teachers to write lesson plans because they have to consider elements such as their knowledge of the students and syllabus or curriculum they are working exams the students are working towards. This paper focuses more on the lesson plan itself and how to plan, make and use it in class.

In the prior parts, this paper has examined lesson plans in general and specifically how to plan, make, use and also the examples of them. It starts with the pre-planning in which teachers have to take into account a number of crucial factors such as activities, skills, language and content that they plan to do in class. The plan as the core issue investigated in this paper follows the discussion by exploring the planning continuum, making a plan, the formal plan and planning a sequence of lessons. In making plan teachers might proceed pre-planning background, pre-planning decisions and making the plan clas description and timetable fit, lesson amis and activities, procedures and timing are covered in the formal plan. The next section explores planning a sequence of lessons consisting of before&after, short&long terms goals, thematic strands, language planning and an activity balance. To have more understanding ends with using lesson plans where teachers must pay attention to actioan and reaction such as magic moments, sensible diversion and unforeseen problems and also how to make use of the plan as records and research tools. Since many perhaps majority of teachers still facing obstacles in making lessson plan, an example of lesson plan is also served this paper. The conclusion of planning lesson as examined in this paper is that teachers should always improve themselves academically so that they can perform their best in the teaching learning process in class. They need to attend many teachers trainning to enlarge their knowledge to be able to help their students. It also important for them to develop their competence in administrative stuff such as writing lesson plans in order to be able to organize the class properly as assigned by the central govermment because local govermments can be freer to imporvise in improving the quality of education now. Pun, sekolah bersama komite sekolah diberi otonomi menyusun kurikulum sendiri sesuai dengan kebutuhan di lapangan. Schools together with the school committies were also given autonomy to design their own curriculum appropriate with the needs on the grounds. Therefore, it is a good chance for teachers to practive theri capability in facing the challenges in their own schools. One of the examples is by conducting ethno pedagogy as proposed by Alwasilah in which teachers can make use of the local wisdom, knowledge and culuture in disigning the class instructions. Hopefully this short paper can inspire teachers to be readier in carrying in their big responsibility in preparing their students in the real word.

REFERANCES

Alwasilah, A. Chaedar, at all. Etnopedagogi. PT. Kiblat Buku Utama. 2009

Harmer, Jeremy. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Person Educated. Limited. 2001

CURRICULUM VITAE

            Purwati, S.S., M.Hum Works as a lecturer of English Educational Program, Faculty of Teacher Trainning, Galuh University.

This article is taken from a published book entitles “WAHANA PENDIDIKAN (Majalah Ilmiah Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan Universitas Galuh. Page: 81-85

Copyright © by Universitas Galuh Ciamis 1995

Allrights reserved

ISSN                           : 1410-606X

First Impression          : October 1995

Published by

Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan Universitas Galuh

Jl. R.E. Martadinata No. 150 Ciamis 46211 Telp. (0265) 7721972 Fax. 771955

JAVANESE FORMS OF ADDRESS Purwati

Purwati

English Department, Faculty of Teacher Training and Educational Sciences, Galuh University

 

Abstract

This paper presents Javanese forms of address. It is written based on the fact the students of English Department still find difficulties in addressing others. Therefore, this paper examines the kinds of forms of addresses in Western culture and as a Javanese, the writer also explores how Javanese address to each other.

To cover all of the mentioned topics previously, this paper is designed into four major parts consisting of introduction, forms of address, Javanese forms of address and conclusion.

Key words:

Forms of addresses, Javanese forms of addresses

 

1. I.                   Introduction

As an  English tutor, I frequently hear my EFL students in Javanese settings (in this case West Javanese setting) greet me and other tutors with good morning, Ma’m; good morning. Sir; or even, good morning, Mister. This phenomenon would never happen in the academic atmosphere of Western culture in which Indonesian students who study there sometimes have a feeling of psychological uneasiness when charged by the Australian norms to address his lectures by their first names. These anecdotes might constitute reasons for conducting an investigation concerning Javanese forms of address. This potential investigation necessarily needs a review of the existing literature in the area as follows:

Forms of Address

            Brown and Ford (1964) have led the research on forms of address. Their study covered forms of address in American English. They used four kinds of data, which were drawn from: 1) modern American plays, 2) actual use in a Boston business firm, 3) reported usage of business executives, and 4) recorded usage in Midwest. Outcomes of the study are that Americans make use of first name (FN) and title plus last name (TLN). The use of FN and TLN might be symmetrical (reciprocal) as well as asymmetrical (non-reciprocal). The asymmetrical use between two speakers is due to occupational rank difference and/or age difference. This kind of difference is that usually refered to as power. Multiple uses of forms of address (interchangeably), however, might also be (solidarity exists. In this sense, Power (status) and intimacy (solidarity) are central.

            This is similar to Brown and Levinson’s (1987) idea when dealing with politeness. This is understandable, as the use of forms of address has a politeness impact, for it deals with force.

            Further to Brown and Ford’s (1964) basic tenets, Ervin-Tripp (1972) investigated forms of address of American English. She approached the study from sociolinguistic perspective. The sociolinguistic rules of the ideal competent adult members of western American academic community (pp.226-7)

Thus, Ervin-Tripp’s sociolinguistic rules and likely to be different from the real use of forms of address by conversant or interactants in real time conversations cautioning the reader of this difference, for she believes that real time use of forms of address needs another kind of approach.

This is what Thomas (1995) means by pragmatics when she discusses the difference between sociolinguistics and pragmatics. Thomas (1995) observes that sociolinguistics deals with the relatively constant rules of use of language in society, whereas pragmatics is concerned with the real use of available rules where modulation, manipulation, improvisation of the rules gives certain force to the relationship between speakers which are made effective; pragmatics, then is the performance aspect of sociolinguistics (Ervin-Tripp, 1972; Thomas, 1995)

            In her work of the sociolinguistics analysis of American English forms of address, Ervin-Tripp (1972) provides an interesting diagram where possible realization of the use of forms of address is determined. She provides selectors, which regulate such possible realization. Prominent among the selectors are the adult/child being of the addressee, status marked situations, rank and identity. Ervin-Tripp also discusses comparative studies on sociolinguistics rules of forms of address. She touches upon the differences in sociolinguistics rules of forms of address within the same language (English) and across languages (e.g., English, Russian, Korean, and Puerto Rican). Brown and Ford (1964) and Ervin-Tripp (1972) seem not to be mindful of the enterprise of teaching second/foreign language, when they give their sociolinguistic account of forms of address (be it monolingual or cross-lingual)

            Similar to Brown and Ford (1964) and Ervin-Tripp (1972) in that he applies sociolinguistic perspectives in his endeavors to compare English and Korean forms of address, Hwang (1975), however, has in mind that his comparison is used to predict potential difficulties encountered by Korean Learners of English, and English learners of Korean. His attempts to compare the forms of address in English and Korean are devoted to pedagogical implications the differences/similarities of forms of address in the two languages might bring about. Indeed, sociolinguistic perspectives on forms of address have undoubtedly provided the study of forms of address with insightful ideas.

            Yet, as Martiny (1996) has commented, following Ervin-Tripp (1972), the use of forms of address has been studied in the paradigm where conversant and/or interactants are in dyadic relationship; forms of address are viewed from the relational nature of the dyadic relationship between the two conversants and/or interactants. Martiny (1996) observes the importance the audience is used to provide a basis for a discussion of forms of address in French and Dutch. This discussion is conducted from a (socio) pragmatic point of address are significant in performing speech acts. This means that the discussion departs, perspective, or more accurately, extension of the sociolinguistic approach. Martiny (1996) believes that theu use of forms of address in influenced by elements previously mentiened in sociolinguistic literature such as the relationship between the speaker and addressee, sex, age and socio-economic backrground; besides, the use of forms of address might be affected by the speaker s pragmatic needs to manipulate the force of the speech act and to capture the addressee s attention.

Tjirebon, 3) Banjumas and Tegal, 4) Bagalen, 5) Jogjakarta and Kedu, 6) Surakarta, Madiun, and Semarang, 7) Rembang, 8) Tuban, Gresik, and Surabaja, 9) Malang and Pasuruan, and 10) Banjuwangi. (Sumukti, 1971, p. 3)

            Similar to Martiny (1996), Nickerson and Bargiela-Chiappini (1996) report a study on forms of address in European languages other than English. While Martiny (1996) deals with French and Dutch, Nickerson and Bargiela-Chippini (1996) are concerned with Dutch and Italian. Whilst Martiny (1996), does not present any empirical data, Nickerson and Bargiela-Chippini (1996) report a study where the empirical data were drawn from Dutch and Italian Business discourse. Their study collected discourse from four authentic meetings, two meetings in Dutch and two meetings in Italian. This study focuses on the mapping and of the semantic shift that occurs in the non-prototypical use of personal pronouns, the pragmatic significance of the shift, and contextual factors behind pronominal choices and personal address forms, e.g., first name and surname (p. 743). The study concludes that Dutch use of pronominal choice shows longer corporate image than Italian, which displays more self and other representation.

            The discussion above has explored the idea that forms of address have been initiated through sociolinguistic perspective. Early sociolinguistic approaches viewed the use of forms of address as governed by the relation between the speaker, in one party, and the addressee, in the other. Recent development has incorporated a pragmatic perspective in dealing with forms of address.

            The recent pragmatic perspectives of studies on forms of address have also encompassed the spirit of cross-cultural studies, which have been prominent since the initiation of sociolinguistic studies. As the present study concerns inter language pragmatics of Javanese forms of address significant in discussion, as encapsulated by the notion of transfer (Baba, 1999); Hill, 1997; Selinker, (1972), is discussion of how the Javanese address each other in their daily interactions. The notion of transfer leads to the asumpiton that the Javanese might refer to and use their L1 pragmatic knowledge of Javanese foms of address when they use Engish forms of address, when they use English forms of address, the result of which is the possibilty that the Javanese EFL students’ use of English forms of address is inappropriate viewed from English native speaker norms.

2. Javanese forms of address

            The focus of the following part is Javanese use of proper names and its possible modification and/or attributes. The choices available for the use of forms of address in Javanese daily conversation are not limited to options between the use of first name (FN) and the use of a title with the last name (TLN) as in American English (Brown&Ford, 1964). Forms of address in Javanese conversation (the Javanese conversation in general as well) is bound up with speech styles (Errington, bound up with speech styles (Errington, 1988; Sadtono, 1972; Wardhaugh, 2002), which could be classified into high, middle, and low.

            Speech styles, in Sumukti’s (1971) and Sudtono (1972) generally categorises speech levels into Ngokko (low), Madya (middle), and Krama des (village language), Basa Kedaton (palace language), and basa Kasar (vulgar language)

            Concurring with Brown and Ford’s (1964) formulation that the use of forms of address is dependent on the relational nature of the speaker and hearer, Errington (1988) observes that the use of Javanese forms of address also relies on the nature of relationship between the speaker and the hearer. He reports his informant’s words: whenever two people meet, they should ask themselves: Who is this person? Who am I? What this is person to me? (p.11). In other words, the use of forms of address in Javanese is part of the general Javanese socially ideal conduct of ungguh-ungguh, which comprises appropriate linguistic as well asnon-linguistic acts (Erringtoon, 1988)

            Besides that, the use of Javanese forms of address is also due to      the vast number of Javanese geographical as well as social dialects. It is daunting, if not impossible, to make rigorous claims of uniformity of forms of address among the dialects (Sadtono, 1972). Sadtono (1972) makes an approximation that there are about 30 Javanese geograpical dialicts, which he tentatively categorises into three major dialects: The kulonan (western) or Pego dialect in the westen part of central Java, including Banten, Indramayu, and Tjirebon dialects in West Java, The Central Javanese dialect in the eastern part of Central Java, extending to some western parts of East Java, the east Javanese dialect in the rest of East Java, excluding those areas where Madurese is spoken (Sadtono, 1972, p. 36)

            Regarding the geographical dialects, Poerwadarminta, as cited in Sumukti (1971), distinguishes ten Javanese geogeraphical dialects, i.e., 1) Banten, 2) Tjirebon, 3) Banjumas and Tegal, 4) Bagelan, 5) Jogjakarta and Kedu, 6) Surakarta, Madiun, and Semarang, 7) Rembang, 8) Tuban, Gresik, and Surabaja, 9) Malang and Pasuruan, and 10) Banjuangi

(Sumukti, 1971, p.3)

            With regard to the Javanese social dialects, Sadtono (1972) mentions that there are Basa Kedaton (the royal dialect of Surakarta Court), Basa Bagongan (the royal staff dialect of Jogjakarta court), basa Kasusastraan (Belletristic dialect), and Basa Pedalangan (theatrical dialect) (p.38-39). Elsewhere, still amplifying the Javanese social dialects, he mentions that Standard Javanese is equal to Krama Madya. The word Krama Madya, here, reminds us of the speech styles or speech levels aforementioned. However, further discussions of the geographical as well as social dialects are beyond the present essay; instead, it is focused on the seemingly universal aspects of the use of Javanese forms of address. In other words, the discussion is limited to sociolinguistic as well as pragmatic dimensions.

            Referring to the previous discussion, the sociolinguistic aspect refers to the relatively constant rule governing such use, whereas the pragmatic aspect deals with the modulation, manipulation, or improvisation which generates a certain force (subjectively deliberate) within the acceptable sociolinguistic framework in a given society or language variety (e.g., Javanese). Articulating Sadtono’s (1972) observation, sociolinguistically the key factors attributable the use of Javanese forms of address are: the gradation of respect for different people concerning age, social status, social stratum. Moreover, genealogical and kinship relationship and the principle of self-condescension. This formulation is not different from that of others (e.g., Brown&Ford, 1964;Ervin-Tripp, 1972) expect for the principle of self extent to which the measurement of such sociolinguistic factors can be articulated is subjectively between the parties involved in real-in-time conversations or interactions (Erringtom, 1988)

            As previously mentioned, the unggah-unggah in Javanese is the influential determinant of the use of forms of address; yet, the oscillatory maneuvers in terms of the linguistic as well as  non-linguistic choices (including forms of address) which are possible within the ungah-unggah framework, are (inter) subjectively determined. As the relationship between the interactants continues over time, pragmatically, the interactants are always on guard, monitoring their relationship, and therefore, modulating the use of forms of address within the acceptable sociolinguistic framework (unggah-unggah) in the case of Javanese). This is what Errington (1988) means by the ways priyayi (high status person) directly or indirectly corrected my usage, instructed others in how to address me, and changed their linguistic usage to fit their changing relations with me and others led me to see that more rides socially on use of some speech elements than others. These relatively interactively important elements I have come to think of as relatively pragmatically salient (pp. 17-8, emphasis original). Here, I (as a Javanese), would add that what Errington (1988) reports is not limited to priyayi. Those other than priyayi are very likely to offer similar comments.

            As mentioned above, Javanese are obliged as to choose choice of the speech styles (levels). Since the subjects of the present study are ordinary Javanese, vis-a-vis the royal elite (priyayi) circle, the possible speech styles shared are believed to be ngoko and krama. Errington (1988) equalizes ngoko and krama to French T/V from phenomena; ngoko is equal to tu, whereas krama to vous. In terms of the use of proper names, it is unlikely that within the use of krama, one addresses the addressee with a njangkar proper name (a name without any additional term either royal or kinship terms), for njangkar signifies intimacy intimacy which is unlikely to be realized in daily krama conversation between or among ordinary Javanese people (Errington, 1988). It follows that the use of njangkar is likely to be realised within ngoko conversations. However, this phenomenon is difficult to account for from the constant sociolinguistic perspective.

            Crucial in the discussion of forms of Javanese address is the notion of trap-trapan or application. As Errington (1988) puts it, shared knowledge of conventions of use must always be assimilated to knowledge of code-contingent, hic et nunc of interaction by gauging message content, presence of bystanders, location of interaction, enduring biographical relation, and a huge variety of variably relevant information that eludes normative descriptions of pragmatic value (pp. 107)

            Drawing from the previous sociolinguistic perspectives, the variables might be categorized into those attributable to the power (status) and intimacy (solidarity) framework. Yet, there is one variable that refers to a similar idea of Martiny’s (1996) audience, i.e., Errington’s (1988) bystanders. This element has been overlooked in the traditional sociolinguistic framework (e.g., that Brown&Ford, 1964 and Ervin-Tripp, 1972). In view of the notion of (pragmatic) transfer, audience might be one of the determinant factors attributable to the pragmatic realization of forms of address.

3.  Conclusion

            To summarize, empirically, studies on interlanguage pragmatics lack evidence of how EFL students use English forms of address. The studies have been focused on speech acts of apologies, requests, complaints, compliment response, and refusals. The key point that can be drawn from the existing literature on interlanguage pragmatics is that interlanguage pragmatic studies often necessitate the use of data gathered from native speakers to provide norms on to which data collected from the EFL subjects can be mapped. Theoretically, discussion of forms of address requires not only sociolinguistic perspectives where rules governing the use of forms of address are viewed as relatively constant or stable, but also pragmatic consideration. Theoretically, as well, studies on forms of address have concentrated on the notion that use of forms of address is affected only by the dyadic relational nature between conversants or interactants.

            Recent development has demonstrated, however, that audience serves as an attributable factor for the use of forms of addrss. Therefore, the focus of the potential study is the endeavour to explore how javanese EFL students use English forms of address in situations where not only factors of dyadic conversants, which include power (status) and intimacy (solidarity), but also the third party of audience is involved; power and solidarity are then viewed in the relations among three parties of speaker hearer-audience.

Refferences:

Baba, J. 1999. Interlanguage Pragmatics: Compliment responses by learners of Japanese and English as a second language, Muenchen: Lincom Europa.

Brown, R., and Ford, M. 1964. Address in American English. In D. Hymes (Ed), Language in Culture and Society: A Reader in Linguistics and Anthtopology (pp. 234-244), New York: Harper&Row.

Brown, P., and Levinson, S. 1987. Politeness: Some Universal in Language Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Djajeng Wasito, S. 1975. Javanese Speech Styles: A Multiple Discriminant Analysis of Social Constraints. Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI

Errington, J.J. 1988. Structure and Style in Javanese: A Semiotic View of Linguistic Etiquette. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press

Ervin-Tripp, S. M. 1972. Sociolinguistic Rules of Address. In J.B. Pride and J. Sadtono, E. 1972. Javanese Diglossia and Its Pedagogical Implications. Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI.

Selinker, L. 1972. Interlanguage. IRAL, 10 (3): 2009-231.

Sumukti, R. 1971, Javanese Morphology and Morphophonemics, Ann Arbor, Michigan:UMI

Thomas, J. 1983. Cross-Cultural Pragmatic Failure. Applied Linguistics, 4: 91-112.

Thomas, J. 1995. Meaning in Interaction: An introduction to Pragmatics. London: Longman.

Wardhaugh, R. 2002, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (4th edn). Malden: Blackway Publishers, Inc.

Penulis:

Purwati

Dosen pada Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan Program Studi Bahasa Inggris Universitas Galuh

This article is taken from a published book entitles “Majalah Ilmiah Cakwala Galuh”. Page: 91-96

 

Copyright © by LPPM Universitas Galuh 2011

Allrights reserved

ISSN                           : 2086-8111

Editor                          : Tito Herdiyanto, S.P. M.P

                                      Hendi Budiman, S.H., M.H

                                      Teti Gumiati, Dra., M.Pd

First Impression          : March 2010

Published by

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JAVANESE ENTHOPEDAGOGY (Ki Hajar Dewantara)

Purwati

English Department, Faculty of Teacher Training and Educational Sciences,

Galuh University

 

Abstract

Etnho pedagogy is education practice based on local wisdom in many aspects of life. It views local wisdom and local knowledge as a source of innovation and skill, which can be used for the prosperity of the society. Local wisdom is a collection of facts, concepts, belief, and perceptions of the society about their surroundings. In short, it is a process how knowledge is produced, kept, applied, managed, and inherited (Alwasilah, 50-51). This paper aims to present Ki Hajar Dewantara as a figure representing etnho pedagogy in Javanese.

 

Keyword: etnhopedagogy, Javanese etnhopedagogy, Ki Hajar Dewantara

 

            By the time of today’s technological advances, most human behavior is influenced by the rapid development and sophistication of technology (information technology), they forget about their aspects of life, such as the importance of building relationships with others, the need to conduct social activities in society, the importance of appreciating each other more than what they have, and others.

            Often man-made technology is no longer dominated by men but rather human is conquered by technology progress. Humans are no longer free to develop themselves into a complete person with all his aspects. Human existence in this era is often measured  by “to have” (whatever material he has) and “to do” (what has been successful/unsuccessful doing) rather than the individual existence of a person, not what he has but what he has done because humans are not just owners of wealth but they also run a particular function. Humanity education stresses the importance of preserving human existence, in the sense of helping people to be more humane, more civilized, as a complete human being as developed by ­Ki Hajar Dewantara as the sense of creativity/cogniti (daya cipta¸and the intention to work (daya karsa), in short, “educate the head, the heart, and the hand”.

            In teh midst of rampant globalization and communication technology, human beings are more individualistic. They are engrossed and fascinated by the new invention in the field of science, which is too sophisticated so that they tend to forget their own welfare as human beings and they also forget the social aspects. Therefore, teaching and learning should be improved to give balance from the aspect of individuality toward the aspect of sociality or collective life as social human. Teaching and learning also should be returned to the humanity aspects cultivated in the mind of the learners.

            Ki Hajar Dewantara as a native educator of Indonesia sees more on the psychological side of human life. According to him, the soul of man has the sense of creative (daya cipta)¸initiative (daya rasa), and intention to work (daya karsa). The development to be a complete human beings requires the development of all resources in a balance way. Development that focuses on one power alone will generate the incompleteness of human development. He says that education emphasizing on the intellectual aspects would only alienate students from the community. Unfortunately, the present education only emphasizes on the development of creativity (daya cipta) and less attention to the development in the sense of initiative (daya rasa).

            From the point of view of socio-anthropologist, human particularity that distinguishes them from other creatures is that humans are cultural, while other creatures are not cultural. One effective way to make people more humane is by developing a culture. People will really be a man if he lives in his own culture. Humans are completely understood as he includes himself to the culture of the surroundings community.

            Ki Hajar Dewantara changed his name to reflect the changes in the manner of implementing the education from the warrior pinandita to pinandita warrior who is the hero character of spiritual teacher to teacher-minded spiritual warrior, who prepare themselves and students to protect the nation. Ki Hajar Dewantara clarifies that teacher should be a qualified person in personality and spirituality, volunteered to be a hero and prepare the learners to be homeland defense. In other words, teachers as educators also function as a model of exemplary figure and as a facilitator. Therefore, his name Hajar Dewantara means as a teacher of goodness, nobility virtue. Educator or the Hajar is someone who has advantages in the field of religion and faith, as well as social problems in the society. The  model is Kyai Semar (a mediator between God and man, realizing the will of God in this world). As an educator who is the mediator of God is the true teacher. He is actually also a priest who is able to convey the will of God and bring salvation.

            Human freedom physically, mentally, and spiritually is the goal of education in Taman Siswa, a school created by Ki Hajar Dewantara. But personal freedom is limited by orderly and peaceful coexistence supports such as attitudes harmony, kinship, consultation, tolerance, unity, democracy, responsibility and discipline. The establishment of Taman Siswa is to build in its own culture and way of life itself by developing a sense of independence in the hearts of people through educational media based on national aspects. Its philosophical foundation is nationalistic and universalistic. Nationalistic point is the national culture, the freedom and independency of the people politically, economically, and spiritually. Universal means based on natural law, everything is a manifestation of the will of God. The basic principle is freedom, free from all obstacles in love, happiness, justice, and peace to grow within themselves (in the heart of people). The atmosphere needed in education is an atmosphere of family principle, kindness, empathy, and respect to each other. Therefore, the rights of every individual should be respected. Education should help learners to become free and independent physically, mentally, and spiritually. Education should not only develop the intellectual aspects because it would separate from the common people. It should enrich each individual but the difference prevailing in each individual must still be considered. It also should strengthen self-confidence, develop self-nutrient. Every person lives his live differently and teachers should be willing to sacrifice personal interests for the sake of happiness of their students. Teachers must produce learners who have independent personality and healthy psychically, mentally, intelligently becoming a useful member of the society and being responsible for the happiness and welfare of others. The method in accordance with this educational system is among the system of teaching and learning methods, which are based on love and care. A complete man is someone who can develop the harmony of all aspects in humanity and who can appreciate and respect the individual aspects of each person.

            Effective teachers have capability in teaching (facilitator) and in relating (relationships and communication) with students and school community members (parents, school committee, and related party). They must perform professionalism in attitude. Professional attitude include among others: the desire to improve them, the desire to follow the times, to build a positive work ethic that is and to serve the community. In this regard, it is also important to appear professionally, physically and intellectually by maintaining social relations and keeping good personality, values and spirituality. In short, there is a need for improving the quality of professinality performance, productive and collaborative engagement with students.

            Finally, we need to realize that the purpose of education is to humanize the man. Education should produce individuals who are more humane, useful and influential positivel in society who will to responsible for their own lives and others.

 

Refferences:

Alwasilah, A. Chaedar, dkk. Etnopedagogi. Landasan Praktek pendidikan dan Pendidikan Guru. PT Kiblat Buku Utama. 2009

 

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